Fault Rock Diagenesis and Fault Zone Attributes

Field tools old and new

Field tools old and new. Comparator: Ortega et al. 2006 AAPG Bulletin. Photo: A. M. Laubach

Fault studies are a growing part of the Structural Diagenesis Initiative portfolio. Diagenesis was recognized early on as an important process in fault zones, and this continues to be an area where a structural diagenesis approach is useful.

Fault Studies in the Structural Diagenesis Initiative

Ongoing studies cover many aspects of fault systematics and fault rock diagenesis. Field research is underway in the Western United States, Canada, Texas, Mexico, Argentina, and New York. Field studies are typically accompanied by laboratory work on fault microstructure, fluid inclusions, and chemistry, and by laboratory rock property testing and numerical modeling.

Selected Structural Diagenesis Initiative Fault Research

Structural Diagenetic Models Applicable to Fault Studies

  • Lander R.H., and Laubach, S.E., 2015, Insights into rates of fracture growth and sealing from a model for quartz cementation in fractured sandstones. Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 127, no. 3-4, p. 516-538. doi: 10.1130/B31092.1 (published online October 2014) | view at publisher
  • Lander, R.H., Solano-Acosta, W., Thomas, A.R., Reed, R.M., Kacewicz, M., Bonnell, L.M., Hooker, J.N., 2009, Simulation of fault sealing from quartz cementation within cataclastic deformation zones. In: AAPG Hedberg Conference Basin and Petroleum Systems Modeling: New Horizons in Research and Applications, May 2009, Napa, California.

Fault Diagenesis and Fault Rock Microstructure

  • Laubach, S.E., Eichhubl, P. Hargrove, P., Ellis, M.A., Hooker, J.N., 2014, Fault core and damage zone fracture attributes vary along strike owing to interaction of fracture growth, quartz accumulation, and differing sandstone composition. Journal of Structural Geology, v. 68, Part A, 207-226. doi: 10.1016/j.jsg.2014.08.007 | view at publisher
  • Makowitz, A., Lander, R. H., Milliken, K. L., 2010, Chemical diagenetic constraints on the timing of cataclasis in deformed sandstone along the Pine Mountain overthrust, eastern Kentucky. Journal of Structural Geology, 32(12), 1923-1932.
  • Eichhubl, P., Davatzes, N.C., Becker, S.P., 2009, Structural and diagenetic control of fluid migration and cementation along the Moab Fault, Utah. AAPG Bulletin, v. 93, no. 5, p. 653-681. | AAPG Notable Paper
  • Lander, R.H., Solano-Acosta, W., Thomas, A.R., Reed, R.M., Kacewicz, M., Bonnell, L.M., Hooker, J.N. Simulation of fault sealing from quartz cementation within cataclastic deformation zones. In: AAPG Hedberg Conference Basin and Petroleum Systems Modeling: New Horizons in Research and Applications, May 2009, Napa, California.
  • Benedicto, A., Plagnes, V., Vergély, P., Flotté, N., Schultz, R.A., 2008, Fault and fluid interaction in a rifted margin: Integrated study of calcite-sealed fault-related structures (southern Corinth margin), in The Internal Structure of Fault Zones: Implications for Mechanical and Fluid-Flow Properties, edited by C.A.J. Wibberley, W. Kurz, J. Imber, R.E. Holdsworth, and C. Collettini, Geological Society of London, Special Publication 299, 257–275.
  • Appold, M., Garven, G., Boles, J., Eichhubl, P., 2007, Numerical modeling of the origin of calcite mineralization in the Refugio-Carneros fault, Santa Barbara Basin, CA. Geofluids, 7: 79-95.
  • Boles, J. R. , Eichhubl, P., Garven, G., and Chen, J., 2005, Evolution of hydrocarbon migration pathway along a basin-bounding fault: evidence from fault cements: AAPG Bulletin, v. 88, 947-970.
  • Davatzes, N. C., Eichhubl, P.,  Aydin, A., 2005, Structural evolution of fault zones in sandstone by multiple deformation mechanisms: Moab fault, SE Utah: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 117, no. 1/2, 135-148.
  • Eichhubl, P., and Flodin, E., 2005, Brittle deformation, fluid flow, and diagenesis in sandstone at Valley of Fire State Park, Nevada, in Pederson, J., and Dehler, C. M., eds., Interior Western United States: Geological Society of America Field Guides, v. 6, 151-167, doi: 10.1130/2005.fld006(07).
  • Eichhubl, P., D’Onfro, P., Aydin, A., Waters, J., McCarty, D. K., 2005, Structure, petrophysics, and diagenesis of shale entrained along a normal fault, Black Diamond Mines, California-implications for fault seal. AAPG Bulletin, v. 89, no. 9, 1113-1137.

Fault Quantification and Mechanics

  • Schultz, R.A., Klimczak, C., Fossen, H., Olson, J.E., Exner, U., Reeves, D.M., Soliva, R., 2013, Statistical tests of scaling relationships for geologic structures. Journal of Structural Geology, v. 48, p. 85-94. | view at publisher
  • Twiss, R., Marrett, R., 2010, Determining brittle extension and shear strain using fault length and displacement systematics: Part I: Theory, Journal of Structural Geology, v. 32, no. 12, p. 1960-1977. doi:10.1016/j.jsg.2010.04.007
  • Twiss, R., Marrett, R., 2010, Determining brittle extension and shear strain using fault length and displacement systematics: Part II: Data evaluation and test of the theory, Journal of Structural Geology, v. 32, no. 12, p. 1978-1995. doi:10.1016/j.jsg.2010.04.006
  • Olson, J.E, Laubach, S.E., Lander, R.H., 2009, Natural fracture characterization in tight gas sandstones: Integrating mechanics and diagenesis. AAPG Bulletin, v. 93, no. 11, p. 1535-1549. | AAPG Notable Paper
  • Soliva, R., Schultz, R.A., A. Benedicto, A., 2005, Three-dimensional D-L scaling and maximum dimension of normal faults in layered rocks, Geophysical Research Letters, 32, L16302.
  • Cladouhos, T., Marrett, R., 1996, Are fault growth and linkage models consistent with power-law distributions of fault lengths? Journal of Structural Geology 18 (2), 281-293.
  • Marrett, R., 1994, Scaling of intraplate earthquake recurrence interval with fault length and implications for seismic hazard assessment. Geophysical Research Letters 21 (24), 2637-2640.
  • Marrett, R. and Almendinger, R.W., 1991, Estimates of strain due to brittle faulting-sampling of fault populations, Journal of Structural Geology, v. 13, no. 6, p. 735-738.
  • Marrett, R. and Almendinger, R.W., 1990, Kinematic analysis of fault-slip data, Journal of Structural Geology, v. 12, no. 8, p. 973-986.

Deformation Bands  | Compaction Bands

  • Klimczak, C., Schultz R.A., 2013, Localized compaction in dilating materials, International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences, 64, 139–147.
  • Eichhubl, P., Hooker, J.N., Laubach, S.E., 2010, Pure and shear-enhanced compaction bands in Aztec Sandstone, Journal of Structural Geology, v. 32, no. 12, p. 1873-1886. doi: 10.1016/j.jsg.2010.02.004.
  • Solum, J.G., Brandenburg J.P., Kostenko O.V., Wilkins S.J., Schultz R.A., 2010, Characterization of deformation bands associated with normal and reverse stress states in the Navajo Sandstone, Utah, AAPG Bulletin, 94, 1453–1475
  • Schultz, R.A., 2009, Scaling and paleodepth of compaction bands, Nevada and Utah, Journal of Geophysical Research, 114, B03407, doi:10.1029/2008JB005876
  • Schultz, R.A., Soliva, R., Fossen, H., Okubo, C.H., Reeves, D.M., 2008, Dependence of displacement-length scaling relations for fractures and deformation bands on the volumetric changes across them, Journal of Structural Geology, 30, 1405–1411.
  • Fossen, H., Schultz, R.A., Shipton, Z.K., Mair, K., 2007, Deformation bands in sandstone: A review, Journal of the Geological Society of London, 164, 755–769.
  • Milliken, K. L., Reed, R. M., and Laubach, S. E., 2005, Quantifying compaction and cementation in deformation bands in porous sandstones, 2005, In R. Sorkhabi and Y. Tsuji, 2005, Faults, fluid flow, and petroleum traps: AAPG Memoir 85, 237-249. doi:10.1306/1033726M85252
  • Eichhubl, P., Taylor, W. L., Pollard, D. D. and Aydin, A., 2004, Paleo-fluid flow and deformation in the Aztec Sandstone at the Valley of Fire, Nevada-Evidence for the coupling of hydrogeologic, diagenetic, and tectonic processes. Geological Society of America Bulletin, vol. 116, no. 9/10, p 1120-1136.

Fault, Fold and Fracture Systems

  • Soliva, R., Schultz, R.A., Ballas, G., Taboada, A., Wibberley, C., Saillet, E., Benedicto, A., 2013, A new model of cataclastic band system formation as a function of tectonic setting, burial and material properties; new insight from Provence (southern France), Journal of Structural Geology, 49, 50–63.
  • Iñigo, J.F., Laubach, S.E., Hooker, J.N., 2012, Fracture abundance and patterns in the Subandean fold and thrust belt, Devonian Huamampampa Formation petroleum reservoirs and outcrops, Argentina and Bolivia. Marine & Petroleum Geology, v. 35, no. 1, p. 201-218. doi:10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2012.01.010 | view at publisher
  • Hennings, P.H., Olson, J.E., Thompson, L.B., 2000, Combining outcrop data and three-dimensional structural models to characterize fractured reservoirs: An example from Wyoming. AAPG Bulletin 84/6, 830-849.
  • Laubach, S. E., 1988, Fractures generated during folding of the Palmerton Sandstone, eastern Pennsylvania: Journal of Geology, v. 96, no. 4, p. 495–503. | view at publisher

Field Methods | Fault and Fracture Analysis

  • Marrett, R., in preparation. Fault kinematics software.
  • Marrett, R., In preparation. Spatial scaling software.
  • Ortega, O. J., Marrett, R., and Laubach, S. E., 2006, A scale-independent approach to fracture intensity and average fracture spacing: AAPG Bulletin, v. 90, no. 2 (Feb. 2006), 193-208 . | view at publisher
  • Gomez, L. A., and Laubach, S. E, 2006, Rapid digital quantification of microfracture populations. Journal of Structural Geology, v. 28, 408-420. | view at publisher

Produced Water | Geochemical Analysis for Fault Evaluation

  • Appold, M., Garven, G., Boles, J., Eichhubl, P., 2007, Numerical modeling of the origin of calcite mineralization in the Refugio-Carneros fault, Santa Barbara Basin, CA. Geofluids, 7: 79-95.
  • Boles, J.R. , Eichhubl, P., Garven, G., and Chen, J., 2005, Evolution of hydrocarbon migration pathway along a basin-bounding fault: evidence from fault cements: AAPG Bulletin 88, 947-970.
  • Philip, Z.G., Jennings, J.W. Jr., Olson, J. E., Laubach, S.E., and Holder, J., 2005, Modeling coupled fracture-matrix fluid flow in geomechanically simulated fracture networks: SPE Reservoir Evaluation & Engineering 8/4, 300-309.

Fractured Carbonate Rock Fault Studies

  • Several studies are underway. Contact Esti Ukar or Randy Marrett for more information.
  • Hooker, J.N., Gomez, L.A., Laubach, S.E., Gale, J.F.W. & Marrett, R., 2012, Effects of diagenesis (cement precipitation) during fracture opening on fracture aperture-size scaling in carbonate rocks. In Garland, J., J.E. Neilson, S.E. Laubach, & K. J. Whidden (eds.) Advances in Carbonate Exploration and Reservoir Analysis, Geological Society of London Special Publications 370, p. 187-206. doi:10.1144/SP370.9. | view at publisher
  • Gale, J. F. W. and Gomez, L. A., 2007, Late opening-mode fractures in karst-brecciated dolostones of the Lower Ordovician Ellenburger Group, west Texas: Recognition, characterization, and implications for fluid flow. AAPG Bulletin 91: 1005-1023.
  • Hooker, J.N., Marrett, R., Laubach, S.E., 2002, Timing of faults and extension fractures in the Sierra Madre Oriental, northeastern Mexico: Gulf Coast Association of Geological Societies Transactions, 52, 421-428.

Fractured Shale Fault Studies

  • Several studies are underway. Contact Julia Gale for more information.
  • Gale, J. F. W., Laubach, S. E., Olson, J. E., Eichhubl, P., and Fall, A., 2014, Natural fractures in shale: a review and new observations. AAPG Bulletin, v. 98, no. 11, p. 2165-2216. doi: 10.1306/08121413151 (published November 2014) |  view at publisher | view at GSW | view at Datapages

Geophysical Approaches to Fault Detection and Quantification

  • Fomel, S., Eichhubl, P., Klokov, A., Olson, J., Sheibani, F., Laubach, S.E., T. Weisenberger, T., Hooker, J. N., Fall, A., 2014, Multiazimuth Seismic Diffraction Imaging for Fracture Characterization in Low-Permeability Gas Formations, Report, 08122.53, RPSEA, 168 p.
  • Klokov, A. and Fomel, S. 2012, Separation and imaging of seismic diffractions using migrated dip-angle gathers. Geophysics 77 (6), S131–S143.
  • Marrett, R., Laubach, S.E. Olson, J.E., 2007, Anisotropy and beyond: geologic perspectives on geophysical prospecting for natural fractures. The Leading Edge, 26/9, 1106-1111.
  • Marrett, R. 1997, Permeability, porosity, and shear-wave anisotropy from scaling of open fracture populations: in Hoak, T.E., Klawitter, A., Blomquist, P.K., eds., Fractured Reservoirs: Characterization and Modeling:  Rocky Mountain Association of Geologists, 217-226

Fault Physical Models

  • Withjack, M.O., Olson, J.E., Peterson, E., 1990, Experimental-models of extensional forced folds: AAPG Bulletin 74/7, 1038-1054.

Fault Rock Hydrothermal Experiments

  • Studies are underway. Contact Andras Fall for more information.

Fault Rock Fluid Inclusion Research

  • Studies are underway. Contact Andras Fall for more information.

 Contemporary Seismicity and in situ Stress

  • Gono, V., Olson, J.E., Gale, J.F.W., 2015, Understanding the correlation between induced seismicity and wastewater injection in the Fort Worth basin. ARMA 15-00419. American Rock Mechanics Association.
  • Schultz, R.A., Tong, X., Soofi, K.A., Sandwell, D.T.,  Hennings, P.H., 2014, Using InSAR to detect active deformation associated with faults in Suban field, South Sumatra Basin, Indonesia. The Leading Edge, 33, 882–888.
  • Laubach, S.E., Olson, J.E., and Gale, J.F.W., 2004, Are open fractures necessarily aligned with maximum horizontal stress? Earth & Planetary Science Letters, v. 222, no. 1, 191-195. | view at publisher
  • Wilkins, S.J., Schultz, R.A., 2005, 3-D cohesive end zone model for source scaling of strike-slip intraplate earthquakes, Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 95, 2232–2258.
  • Marrett, R., 1994, Scaling of intraplate earthquake recurrence interval with fault length and implications for seismic hazard assessment. Geophysical Research Letters 21 (24), 2637-2640. doi:10.1029/94GL02408 |  view

Reviews

  • Laubach, S.E, P. Eichhubl, C. Hilgers, R.H. Lander, 2010, Structural diagenesis. Journal of Structural Geology, v. 32, no. 12, p.1866-1872. doi:10.1016/j.jsg.2010.10.001. | request reprint | About Structural Diagenesis | view at publisher
  • Schultz, R.A., Fossen, H., 2008, Terminology for structural discontinuities, AAPG Bulletin, 92, 853–867.
  • Aydin, A., Borja, R.I., and Eichhubl, P., 2006, Geological and mathematical framework for failure modes in granular rock. Journal of Structural Geology 28/1, 83-98.
  • Laubach, S. E., Marrett, R., Olson, J. O., 2000, New directions in fracture characterization, The Leading Edge 19, July, 704-711. doi: 10.1190/1.1438694
  • Schultz, R. A., 1999, Understanding the process of faulting: selected challenges and opportunities at the edge of the 21st century. Journal of Structural Geology, 21(8), 985-993.
  • Laubach, S. E., Marrett, R., Olson, J., and Scott, A. R., 1998, Characteristics and origins of coal cleat: a review: International Journal of Coal Geology, v. 35, 175-207. [includes faults in coal]

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